Decades of Climate Diplomacy: Overview of Global Climate Agreements

Palace of Nations, Geneva, Switzerland.

Over the years, a series of international climate agreements have been negotiated and adopted to combat climate change, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and protect our planet's fragile ecosystems.

In this article, we will delve into some of the key international climate agreements that have shaped the global response to climate change.

1972: Stockholm Declaration and Action Plan for the Human Environment

The Stockholm Declaration was adopted at the 1972 United Nations Conference on Human Environment, the first world conference to make the environment a major issue. The Stockholm Declaration contained 26 principles, which collectively placed environmental issues front and centre of international concerns, and started the dialogue across the Global North and South regarding environmental issues. The Stockholm conference also created the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

1991: Espoo Convention

The Espoo Convention, adopted in 1991 and entered into force in 1997, is a treaty that “sets out the obligations of parties to assess the environmental impact of certain activities at an early stage of planning”[1]. It also obliges states to notify and consult each other on major projects under consideration that are likely to have a significant adverse environmental impact. This convention is essential for ensuring that climate projects are environmentally responsible. It applies to planned private and public activities. The objective of the Espoo Convention is the integration of environmental considerations into economic development.

1992: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the foundational international treaty that initiated the global response to climate change. Adopted in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, the UNFCCC's primary objective is to prevent "dangerous human interference with the climate system." It established the principles and framework for subsequent climate agreements, including the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.

1992: The Rio Declaration

At the same Earth Summit as where the UNFCCC (see above) was adopted, the Rio Declaration was produced. The Rio Declaration consists of 27 principles to aid countries in implementing sustainable development. Principle 1 reads: “Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.” Importantly, the Rio Declaration was a critical document, because it emphasised that economic progress is linked with environmental protection – something that remains an important yet often disregarded topic of discussion today.

1997: The Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997 and in force from 2005 to 2012, marked a significant milestone in the global response to climate change. It extends the commitments of the UNFCCC by requiring developed countries and transitioning economies to limit and decrease their greenhouse gas emissions based on agreed-upon targets (whereas the UNFCCC only asked countries to adopt mitigation policies and to report periodically). The Kyoto Protocol places greater responsibility on developed countries, due to their historical contribution to high greenhouse gas emissions. Within its Annex B, the Kyoto Protocol establishes binding emission reduction targets for 37 industrialised nations, transitioning economies, and the European Union, with the goal of achieving a 5% reduction in emissions compared to 1990 levels over the initial commitment period from 2008 to 2012. Although the Kyoto Protocol was a ground-breaking agreement, it was replaced by the Paris Agreement in 2016.

2001: Marrakesh Accords

The Marrakesh Accords, adopted in 2001 at COP7, set the rules for implementing Articles 5, 7, and 8 of the Kyoto Protocol. The Marrakesh Accords introduced transparent accounting, reporting, and review systems to make data available to the public, except for confidential information.

2003: Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)

The SEA Protocol follows on the Espoo Convention (see above) in ensuring that its parties integrate environmental assessment early on into their plans. SEA also synergises with Principle 4 of the Rio Declaration (see above), which states: “In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.”

2009: The Copenhagen Accord

The Copenhagen Accord was negotiated during COP15 in 2009 and endorsed the continuation of the Kyoto Protocol while acknowledging the need for a more comprehensive and universal agreement to address climate change effectively. Essential components of the Copenhagen Accord comprise an ambitious target to cap global temperature rise at 2 degrees Celsius; a mechanism for nations to submit their individual mitigation commitments by a certain deadline; inclusive terms for monitoring and confirming countries’ actions; a commitment from developed nations to provide $30 million to support developing countries; and a target to generate $100 billion annually in public and private funding by 2020. The Copenhagen Accord also established the Green Climate Fund.

2012: The Doha Amendment

The Doha Amendment, agreed upon during COP18 in Doha, Qatar, in 2012, extended the Kyoto Protocol by introducing a second commitment period from 2013 to 2020. It included updated targets for Annex B Parties and added further greenhouse gasses to be reported on. The Doha Amendment set a new target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 18% compared to 1990 levels for participating countries. The Doha Amendment did not come into force until 2020. Once it came into force, it made participating developed countries’ emission reduction commitments legally binding.

2015: The Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015 at COP21 and entered into force in 2016, is without a doubt one of the most significant international climate agreements to date. It aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, with an aspirational goal of limiting it to 1.5 degrees. Recent emphasis has been on the 1.5 degrees target, due to the severe climate change impacts associated with exceeding it, such as increased droughts, heatwaves and rainfall. The Paris Agreement operates on a 5-year cycle of increasingly ambitious climate action by countries, with each country determining its nationally determined contributions (NDCs). The Paris Agreement supports countries through finance, technology transfer, and capacity-building, primarily focusing on assistance for developing nations.

2018: The Katowice Climate Package

The Katowice Climate Package, agreed at COP24, in Katowice, Poland, is a set of guidelines and rules that provide the operational details needed to implement the Paris Agreement effectively. It addresses critical issues such as transparency, accounting, and verification, ensuring that countries are held accountable for their climate action commitments.

These international climate agreements and EU climate legislation represent a diverse set of approaches to address climate change, ranging from legally binding emission targets to guidelines for transparency and cooperation. They demonstrate the global community's determination to create a more sustainable and climate-resilient world, while acknowledging the critical role collaboration plays in advancing climate action. While challenges remain in implementing and achieving the goals outlined in these agreements, they are crucial tools in the fight against climate change.

[1] https://unece.org/more-convention